By Mohib Ahmad
The immediate provocation for this article comes from reports that 300 Muslim couples in Sultanpur have been asked to remarry because they attended a funeral led by a Maulana belonging to another sect. While such an attitude may seem holier-than-thou to some, it is of utmost importance to many others. This issue also provides a good opportunity to understand the differences between various sects of Muslims in India. Inspiration for this write-up also comes up from the callous habit of some media outlets and scholars to paint the entire Indian Muslim community with the same brush.
The concept of ummah (community) is central to Islamic beliefs but except during the life of Prophet Muhammad, the existence of one single ummah has been just an illusion. Soon after the death of the Prophet, there was a major schism in Islam that led to the formation of two groups, Sunnis and Shias. Over time, these major groups kept dividing and sub-dividing into other formations whereas new sects kept originating. Some have survived history, some have shaped it and some have faded into oblivion. There is a famous tradition related to Prophet that there will be 73 sects of Muslims with only one being safe from the fire. Many sects use this hadith (traditions related to Prophet) to highlight differences with other sects and insist why their sect is the only rightly guided one.
Major strains of Islam in India
There are at least four major strains of contemporary Islam in India: Deobandi, Barelvi, Wahhabi (Ahl-e-Hadith/Salafi) and Shia. Both Deobandi and Barelvi sects derive their beliefs from the Hanafi school of jurisprudence but are at each other’s throat theologically and, at times, literally. Barelvis accuse Deobandis of being Wahhabis, meaning followers of Abdul Wahab (1703 – 1792), the 18th century cleric from Najd, whose campaign against the ‘corrupt’ Islamic practices eventually led to the formation of current Saudi Arabia. His followers are called Wahhabis and usually this term is used interchangeably with the word Salafis. Ahl-e-Hadith, a group originating in South Asia, also follows a similar ideology.
The Barelvi accusation against Deobandis (of being Wahhabis) is only partially correct as Wahhabis don’t follow any of the four schools of jurisprudence in toto. However, Deobandi beliefs regarding the person of Prophet are much closer to Wahhabis. Deobandis strictly follow the Hanafi school and that explains their militant reluctance to do away with the practice of instant triple talaq which is an interpretation reached by Imam Abu Hanifa. On their part, Deobandis accuse Barelvis of indulging in shirk (associating partners to Allah) by visiting dargahs, prostrating before graves and invoking favors from the dead.
The animosity between the two groups is legendary with Deobandis not being allowed to pray in Barelvi mosques and in some cases, vice versa. The hardcore among them don’t inter-marry and some Barelvi rulings go as far as to have the marriage of their followers declared null and void if they have had any relationship with a Deobandi. So much so that shaking hands with Deobandis is prohibited and if forced into a situation, the manner in which Barelvis shake hands with Deobandis is quite unusual and pretty hilarious.
Barelvis are characterized by their great reverence for Prophet Muhammad whom they put at a higher pedestal than a mere bashar (human). A lot of their opposition to the other sects arises from the fact that the other sects don’t share their idea of the person of Prophet. An oft-used pejorative by Barelvis against others is gustaakh-e-rasool (irreverence to the Prophet). Even though one would find a lot of educated Muslims following the Barelvi ideology, the majority of Barelvi followers are poor, illiterate Muslims. They go to dargahs (shrines) and tie threads for mannats (supplications). In recent years, Barelvis have lost some of their clout but they are still in majority. The corruption of the sajjada-nashins (caretakers) of these dargahs has also put off many Muslims.
The third major strain is Wahhabism. The history of Wahhabism in India is almost as old as it is in Saudi Arabia. It is usually traced back to Syed Ahmed Shaheed (1786 – 1831) who was a follower of Shah Abdul Aziz (1746 – 1823), son of Shah Waliullah (1703 – 1762). He was involved in a militant struggle against Sikhs in the current NWPF region of Pakistan with local Pashtun tribes as allies and was eventually killed. Even though Wahhabism originated in India almost at the same time as the in Saudi Arabia, it is amazing how limited influence it has had in India in and South Asia. Jamaat Ahl-e-Hadith can be considered as an organized form of Wahhabism in India.
The fourth major strain is Shiism and a lot of people are familiar with the differences between them and Sunnis. It is also relevant to contemporary discussions because of a large Shia population in India, increasing influence of Iran in geopolitics and the war in Iraq.
There are many other smaller strains of Islam in India like Qadianis (Ahmadis), Mahdavis, Ismailis, Bohras etc. but most of them either have limited influence or are generally considered on the fringes of mainstream Islam.
Indian Muslim youths
As far as educated Indian Muslim youths are concerned, if they want a sectarian affiliation, usually there are two options: Tablighi Jamaat or becoming a ghair-muqallid meaning not following any of the four school of thoughts of traditional Islam. For discussion purposes we can categorize the Wabbabism/Salafism/Ahl-e-Hadith together as ghair-muqallid.
Tablighi Jamaat can be seen as the practical manifestation of the Deobandi movement. Their scholars are the Deobandi scholars and their founders have had close connections with the Deobandi movement. The two major madrasahs in India, one at Deoband (Darul Uloom) and the other one at Lucknow (Nadwatul Darul Ulema) are associated with the Tablighi movement. Now, the Tablighi movement offers a very unique version of Islam. It basically combines the immense importance of tawhid (oneness of God) with the Sufi concept of connecting to God at an individual level. Scholars like Yoginder Sikand have argued this in detail. For Tablighi Jamaat adherents, namaaz is but a means to connect to God (pray as if you are talking to Him) and also their overwhelming emphasis on islaah-e-nafs (cleansing of soul). Many of their leaders abhor the term Tablighi Jamaat as it gives an impression that they are preaching to others whereas the focus is in fact on one’s own self. The movement has borrowed heavily from the practices of traditional Sufism like individual azkaar (recitation of God’s name) and sometimes under the tutelage of a Sheikh (teacher).
The other option is to leave the traditional form of Islam and becoming a ghair-muqallid. The traditional form of Islam (Hanafi, Shafai, Maliki, Hanbali) rely on interpretations of one of the four imams with all four madhabs (school of thought) considered right. The ghair-muqallid form of Islam insists on formulating Islamic laws on a case to case basis with the help of Quran and Hadith. It is being propagated through the success of orators like Dr. Zakir Naik who come from a non-madrasah background but are well-versed in theological discourse. He insists on not following any madhab blindly and rejecting those interpretations which he thinks goes against the teachings of Quran and Hadith. The appeal of ghair-muqallids lies in their insistence of going back to the basics meaning following the example of the generation of Prophet Muhammad and his companions, and two generations after them. Another important feature of ghair-muqallids is their emphasis on individual scholarship which is quite attractive to the youths who by virtue of their modern education want to inquire about the interpretations than just being told by clerics. This movement is gaining ground in India and the Tablighi Jamaat recognizes the threat posed to them. Some Tablighis have joined the Salafi movement in the past few years, the most famous case being the head of Idara Ishaat-e-Diniyat, which is the de facto publishing house for Tablighi literature. Audio recording of the reasons of his converting as a ghair-muqallid were widely circulated on the web and used for propaganda purposes.
Post Scriptus
Finally, I have used the terms in a general sense and as we dig deeper, the differences between even similar sects become glaring. For example, some Salafis don’t consider Ahl-e-Hadith as Salafis even though they are considered ideological twins by many. Some Deobandi scholars criticize the Tablighi Jamaat as indulging in bidah (innovation) even though for many observers maintain that both are one and same. To elucidate the theological nuances of all these sects would require at least one complete book or more. A popular truism is that for everything valid about India, the converse is also valid. With all their complexities and sectarian differences, the same can be said for Indian Muslims.
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Mohib Ahmad runs the Indian Muslim opinion website www.IndianMuslims.in
[Photo by Mani Babbar]